gre:Argumen正文部分的写作方法
对于正文部分的写作。我们首要关心的是正文的结构。其次是正文展开的攻击策略以及信号词、常用
句型等。
1.正文的结构
正文的结构应尽可能地反映整篇文章的论证过程。考生应该对原论述的论据(evidence)和假设
(assumption),原论述的中间结论(intermediate conclusion)(如果有的话)以及终的结论(final conclusion)依次
进行批驳。如果原论述中有三个明显的漏洞,且把每个漏洞作为一段展开攻击的话,正文部分的结构如下:
1)A first major assumption (about an item of evidence) is needed to justify the intermediate conclusion.
2)A second major assumption (about an item of evidence) is also needed to justify the intermediate
conclusion.
3)If the intermediate conclusion is true, n third major assumption is still needed to justify the final
conclusion.
对于某些Argumen咪说。评论的关键在于对该Argument的结论成立所依赖的某个初始假设进行批驳。下面
我们给出了这种类型命题的正文部分的结构(分四段论证):
1)The threshold assumption is needed before addressing the argument's main line of reasoning.
2) If the threshold assumption is true, a first major assumption (about an item of evidence) is still needed to
justify the argument's conclusion.
3)If the threshold assumption is true, a second major assumption (about an item of evidence) is still
needed to justify the argument's conclusion.
4) Even if all of the foregoing assumptions are true, a third (and final) major assumption is still needed to
justify the argument's conclusion.
当然,大多数的Argument文章并不会完全符合上面所讲到的两种结构,但是评论Argument的主要思路都
是一样的:跟踪原文的推理过程。从原文的论据人手,接下来考虑原文的假设和中间结论(如果有的话),后
再考虑原文的终结论。在Argument正文的写作过程中。考生要注意以下几点:
1)每一段第一句话为主题句(topic sentence)。指出将要展开分析的逻辑错误;
2)在写正文时要按逻辑错误来分段。段落的数址一般以三到四段为。先攻击主要的逻辑错误,然后涉
及一般性问题。如果某题的逻辑错误多于三个,则可以用前两段先分别攻击两个主要逻辑错误,其他次
要逻辑错误全部放在正文的第三段;
3)许多Argument的论断都依赖于某些“初始化”假设(例如,一个含糊不清的或未定义的词语的愈思)。提出这类假设的址合乎逻辑的位置是正文部分的第一段。因为这样将会为你批驳整篇Argument文章的推
理扫清障碍;
4)许多Argument会依赖于这样的瑕设:作者建议的行为是达到既定的目的或结果的必要、充分或充要条
件。讨论这类假设的合乎逻辑的位置是在正文部分的后一段。在这一段中,你承认所有其他似设是
正确的。然后再对该假设进行批驳;
5)有些Argumen体身就有逻辑问题(例如,自相矛后的建议或目标、循环论证等)。通常。解决这类问题的
般合乎逻辑的位置是正文部分后一段。在这一段中。你承认所有其他假设都是正确的。然后再对该逻
辑问题进行批驳。
在大多数情况下,考生可以按照上面所讲的原则来确定主体部分的段数以及段落之间的逻辑顺序。除此
之外,考生还可以考虑下面两方面的内容:
1)Suggestions as to how the Argument can be strengthened.
2)Additional information needed to evaluate the Argument.
如果时间允许。考生就可以在自己的评论中加人以上两方面的内容。其方法如下:
1)把你的建议(或必要的额外信息)融入每一个主体段的写作过程中。比如:指出某一个特定的假设要想
成立,需要额外的证据支持;
2)在后一段,罗列出你的建议(或额外信息)。
2、正文的攻击策略
在Argument正文的写作过性中,对题日所包含的逻辑错误的识别固然重要。但为关键的是对这些错误和漏洞的分析。即为什么它们是推理或论证过程中的谬误?这实际上就是关于如何展开正文段的写作的问题。
正文的每一段都要展开剖析典型的逻辑错误。具体如何批驳是十分灵活的。从总体上讲。主要的攻击策略有:
·指出推理或论证中出现的谬误:作者要明确指出为什么某个地方可以被认为是推理或论证谬误?它错在什么地方?
.提出改进建议:指出哪些证据可以加强原论述,或对原论述做出怎样的改变可以使它更有逻辑性。
.寻求其他解释:是否可以设想是其他原因导致了某一结果;是否可以换一个角度解释某一现象;例如题中说事件人是事件B的原因。如果作者认为A不是B的原因。就应该指出真正的原因可能是什么,并论证这个真正原因成立的可能性。
·举出反例:假设对原论述不利或削弱其逻辑性的论据出现。同样。假如题目说事件A是事件B的原因。
如果作者认为A不是B的原因。只需举出若干相反的例证就够了。
.解剖推理过程:追踪原论述的推理思路,看看它是由哪些要农构成的。
3.正文部分的转折过渡词
正文段落之间的起承转合以及过渡衔接离不开转折过渡词。正文部分的三个(或四个)段落一般是彼此并
列或层层递进的关系。考生会很自然地运用诸如“First”, “Second”, “Third”, “Last but not least”这样的转折过
渡词或短语。这样的做法无可厚非。但是恰恰是因为大多数的人郁会这样做。你不妨对这种账本式的罗列略微
做一些变化。在千篇一律的文章之中,只要你的文章看起来有些与众不同,那么定然要比别人多一些优势。
1)承上启下
a) In the first place, In the second place, In the third place
b) First of all, In addition, Finally
c) To be乡n with, Furthermore, Last but not least
d) Most obviously, In addition, Finally
e) The major problem with this argument is that…/ Another problem that weakens/ undermines the logic
of this argument is thatJ Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out another flaw /
several other flaws that undermine(s) the argument.
2)例证:for example / instance
3)假设:if, even if, given that, granted that, only when, unless, in this / that case, even so, unless the arguer
provides substantial evidence regarding / concerning / as to…, the assumption that… is unfounded /
problematic / unconvincing…
4)推测:it is possible that…, it is equally possible that…, another possibility is that…, it is also likely that…,
possibly, perhaps
注意:
以上这些词或者短语要用得自然,不可滥用,不要搞得满篇都是这些转折过渡词。用这些词的关健在
于结合丈章的退样发展,自然而灵活地应用,只要达到使丈章上下文有机地联系在一起的目的即可。
4.正文部分的常用句型
正文部分每一段的第一句话通常是该段的主题句(topic sentence)。这也是阅卷者必看的一句话。所以考生
不但要确保这一句话在语育上精彩、地道,而且要准确无误地描述一个将要攻击的逻辑错误。下面给出了主题
句的一些常见表达方法,供考生参考。
1)Another assumption short of legitimacy is the causal relationship claimed between… and…
2)Another reasoning error is that…
3) Another weakness worth pointing out is that…
4) Given that…, the author made a premature conclusion/ the author's claim /conclusion is premature.
5)If so, even if…the argument that… would be seriously undermined.
6) Not only does the author fail to…, but also he fails to…
7) The arguer assumes that… However, no evidence is provided to support this assumption. We are only
informed that…
8) The arguer assumes that… may be indicative of.二However, there is no clear / compelling evidence to prove
that…
9) The arguer assumes that… merely based on the fact that…
10) The arguer commits a fallacy of…
11)The arguer fails to consider/ acknowledge and rule out /eliminate/ exclude other possibilities/ factors that…
12) The arguer fails to consider / fails to take into account / ignores / neglects / overlooks the possibility that…
13)The arguer fails to convince us that…
14)The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the fact that …and the assumption / assertion /
conclusion that…
15)The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between… and…
16) The arguer fails to present any information concerning…
一7)The arguer fails to provide any evidence to prove that…
18)The arguer fails to take into account / consider/explain other possible reasons…
19) The arguer ignores other relevant factors concerning…
20) The arguer overemphasizes the importance of…
21)The arguer unfairly assumes that…
22)The arguer's conclusion depends on the questionable assumption that…
23)The argument depends on / rests on / relies on the gratuitous / unreasonable assumption(s) that…
24) The author provides no justification for…
25)The evidence provided in this argument is not sufficient to validate the assumption that…
26) The evidence / facts cannot lend support to the claim/assumption / assertion that…
27) The fact that… does not ensure that… / lends no strong support to…
28) The fact that accomplishes nothing toward bolstering…
29) The fact that.二does not necessarily mean that / ensure that…
30) The fact that… is insufficient to prove / establish that…
31)The fact that… lends no support to the conclusion that…
32) The fact that …says/tells little / nothing (can say nothing) about the conclusion that…
33)The fact.二does not lend significant support to the claim / assumption that…
34) The fact… is scant evidence that…
35) The first problematic assumption is that / involves that…
36) The first / major problem with the argument is that / involves that.二
37) The reasoning that… is open to doubt / doubtful / problematic / questionable / unconvincing / unfounded /
unwarranted.
38) The second/ another assumption (that is) short of/ lacking legitimacy/ without justification is that…
39) The statistical evidence / the result of the survey upon which the argument relies is too vague to be
informative.
40) There are several assumptions that deserve attention.
41)Unless the author can prove that…, the author's claim / assumption/conclusion / assertion that… is
unfounded.
42) We are merely informed that… We cannot ensure that/whether…
43) We cannot safely infer that… from the mere fact that…
44) While it is true that…, it is also likely / true that…
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